Psle

Should PSLE be scrapped off? What is PSLE? The Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) is basically an examination taken by Primary 6 students before they go onto their Secondary School education. As different Secondary Schools have different cut-off points based on the previous intake, schools with higher cut-off points are usually regarded as the better ones. Naturally, parents would prefer their child to get into a better school, as they believe that these schools will offer their children a better education.Other than PSLE, there is also other ways a student can get into their desired Secondary School such as the Direct School Admission (DSA). Students who are able to choose the DSA approach are usually more sports or art inclined. The Ongoing Debate Recently, many Singaporeans have considered PSLE as the ‘do or die’ examination. The reason is because parents are feeling too much pressure on account of the PSLE. Many parents want their children to get into brand na me schools, causing them to feel stressed and worried. â€Å"People take secondary school admission so very seriously. If I don't get into that school, then my kid has no chance in life',† said Prime Minister Mr Lee Hsien Loong. Mr Lee also mentioned that ‘every school is a good school’ so that they can get the pressure off the parents. However, not every parent in Singapore is pressurized by the fact that his or her children may not be able to get into a good Secondary School. Housewife Sandy Lee, 40, said she enrolled her son Zong Wei in Townsville Primary as she felt that the principal and teachers cared for the pupils. She is also not too worried about her son's PSLE results.She said: â€Å"I don't want to pressure him too much, as long as he can get into a secondary school. † And with this in mind, there is an ongoing debate on whether the PSLE should be abolished as it is causing too much stress on Singaporean students and parents as well. One of the The Straits Times' current affairs website readers asked if Singapore could reduce the reliance on exams, and even do away with the PSLE. This emerged among the top 10 most pressing questions that people wanted the Prime Minister to answer, according to a week-long poll on the website that drew over 21,000 votes.The stress that comes with PSLE is something that needs to be looked at, but scrapping the exam or tweaking the assessment criteria may not be the solution, said Senior Minister of State Lawrence Wong. My Personal Experience I’ve taken PSLE in the year 2007 and I have to admit that PSLE was pretty stressful for me. Every day after school, I had to go for supplementary lessons conducted by teachers till 5 to 6pm every day and then head home for dinner before revising again. During the weekends, I had to attend tuition and there was no playtime for me.I did that continuously for 4 to 5 months before PSLE. My parents have always supported me throughout that period of ti me and were always cheering me on. They have never given me any stress. Instead, they asked me to set a goal for myself and to ask myself, â€Å"What do I want in life? † After knowing what I want in life, everything felt like it was worth it and after PSLE ended I had 2 months of holiday just purely relaxing and enjoying myself as I felt like I gave my best and had no regrets.So, should PSLE be scrapped off? My personal opinion In my opinion, I think that PSLE is a very good way of gauging a student’s learning pace. A school with a lower cut-off point doesn’t mean that it is a bad school; it’s just a school for students with a slower learning pace. The main problem with PSLE is the stress that it's causing for students and I believe that it is because many students are just like the me I was back then, learning what it feels like to be stressed for the first time.In life, everything has its first time and if a student is not able to deal with the stress from PSLE, he or she will never be able to deal with the stress in Secondary School. Hence, I strongly believe that PSLE should not be scrapped off. Conclusion Let the students taking PSLE work towards a goal set by themselves and not their parents. This way, students will drive themselves towards it. And after all of it, it’ll be worthwhile. Reference: Chia, S & Toh, K. (2012, September 22).Scrapping PSLE Not The Solution: Lawrence Wong. Ministry of Education, Singapore: Education in the News. Retrieved on November 18, 2012 from http://www. moe. gov. sg/media/news/2012/09/scrapping-psle-not-the-solutio. php Au Yong, J. (2012, 27 September). PSLE stays but needs relook: PM. The Straits Times. Retrieved November 18, 2012 from Factiva Database. Goh, C. L. (2012, 17 November). PSLE not the be-all and end-all: PM. The Straits Times. Retrieved November 18, 2012, from Factiva Database.

Counselor Ethics and Responsibilities Essay

In this paper I will discuss Counselor Ethics and Responsibilities; to include my own personal thoughts and values concerning abortion and extramarital affairs and how I would personally provide ethical counseling to a client’s struggling with abortion and or extramarital affair issues. Next I will discuss client’s right to autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, justice and fidelity in ethical counseling. Then I will cover the factors that must be considered in â€Å"duty to warn† and also â€Å"duty to protect† obligations as a counselor. Finally, I will discuss client record keeping; a client’s right to a professional standard of care, and counselor liability. Counselor Values: Abortion From my own personal experience and beliefs, abortion is wrong with few exceptions. My personal belief is that if a female is raped or there is danger to the mother abortion is acceptable to me. What I mean by acceptable is that it creates dissonance with my current operating beliefs of abortion being wrong to take the life of an unborn fetus. I have a 16 year old daughter whom was gang raped which resulted in a pregnancy not at the will or choice of my daughter. My belief says no abortion, but my rational side asks many questions like; is the mother ready to care for a child? Can she physically and monetarily care for a child? How will this affect her life in the long run? What about school? Are the any issues that might arise if the mother carries to full term? Am I ready in every fashion to become a grandparent? To me each answer was no and my daughter continued and had the abortion. Extramarital affairs In an article by Wagaman (2013), he point s out that Americans today are more tolerant to premature sex, divorce and gay relationships which was once considered taboo. He continues by saying â€Å"but there’s one exception: We condemn adultery like it is 1642.† (WAGAMAN, 2013) I follow suite and believe if you marry another person that is the one person you have devoted yourself to and should at any cost stick by their side no matter what and an extramarital affair is a deal breaker. I ask myself why I should punish my partner by going outside of the marriage seeking the puzzle piece that is missing, when my wife has already given me the key to her heart. In society today people have more control and freedom to explore premature sex and entering and leaving a relationship or marriage. But, with all this freedom and control there comes accountability and lying is the one vice most consider wrong. (WAGAMAN, 2013) Describe how you would counsel the client in each situation. In counseling a client in both cases of abortion and extramarital affairs I quote the ACA (2014) section A; A.1.a, Primary Responsibility, â€Å"The primary responsibility of counselors is to respect the dignity and promote the welfare of clients.† It is not uncommon for the counselor and client to have different values and beliefs at all. (2014 ACA Code of Ethics, 2014) First off, I will have to step back and look at my own personal area or areas of expertise. According to the NBCC Code of Ethics (2012), â€Å"NCCs (Nationally Certified Counselor’s) shall perform only those professional services for which they are qualified by education and supervised experience (NATIONAL BOARD FOR CERTIFIED COUNSELORS (NBCC), 2012) .† Addiction specialist shall seek out new/effective approaches which enhance their professional abilities such as; continuing education research and activities with professional in different disciplines. (The Association for Addiction Professionals, 2013) Some client’s many have already dealt with an abortion or affair and may be seemingly ok, but not in-line with my values. As the primary counselor in these cases it is my responsibility to avoid causing harm or imposing my values on to my client. As a counselor I must act accordingly to avoid harming my client or abate or remedy unavoidable or unforeseen harm. Counselors must be aware of their own values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviors and avoid imposing them on their client. For example, if I’m opposed to both abortion and affairs these are  my own personal beliefs and not those of the client. My client may have had an affair and became pregnant by someone other than their partner and had an abortion to hide it from their significant other. So if I were to voice my values to my client this could cause harm to the counselor-client relationship where the client shuts down and it causes irreversible damage due to me imposing my own values on my client. According to the NBCC (2012), from the point of view of an addiction counselor, the professional counselor refrains from using methods which seems coercive like threats, negative labeling or any means which causes shame or humiliation. In the case of abortion or having an affair, either could provoke shame and humiliation in the client based on counselor vs client values. Clients Rights: Autonomy Incorporating autonomy in its simplest form is supporting the clients’ right to make their own decisions and addresses the concept of independence. In order to support a clients’ autonomy, this means not imposing goals, agendas or values on a client. As a counselor I must understand, embrace and work with the client’s experiences; culturally, socioeconomically, this is supported in counseling through person centered style of counseling and communication. (Ryan, 2011) Nonmaleficence Incorporating nonmaleficence is supported by the number one rule in counseling, the concept of causing no harm to others our clients. This practice is tied with a clients’ autonomy and their right to independence and making their own choices. Implementing this means living by the laws of your state and follow the ACA, NAADAC or NBCC codes of ethics. (Davis, 1996) Beneficence Beneficence is simply doing what is good for the client, this is the counselors’ responsibility to be proactive and contribute to the overall health and welfare of their client’s. This means doing treatment planning with the client and listening to the clients’ input in the planning process. (Ryan, 2011) Justice According to Kitchner (1984), Justice is not doing what is right for the  client, but treating equals equally and unequals unequally. This means identify such things as ethnic background, socioenomic background, race and numerous others. (Kitchner, 1984) Fidelity Incorporating fidelity is me being loyal to my client, because clients’ must must have faith and trust in their counselor in the therapeutic relationship in order for growth to occur. This means being faithful and meeting obligations and commitments and not leaving with of these unfulfilled. (Ryan, 2011) Discuss the informed consent process and how it protects client rights including: Informed consent is an on-going process throughout the counseling process; it lets the client know that first they have the freedom to engage in or decline entrance into a therapeutic relationship and gives them sufficient information concerning the theraputic process and the therapist. Informed consent is an obligation placed on the counselor, which is reviewed both written and orally explaining the rights and responsibilities of the counselor as well as the client. Therapists explain to their clients the nature of all services, goals, purposes, techniques, limits, procedures, benefits and potential risk of services; counselor credentials and qualifications, relevant experience and counseling approach. Counselor explain fee and billing arrangements including non-payment of fees. Clients also receive rights and limits of confidentiality, information concerning records, refusal of services and consequences of refusal. (Gerald Corey, 2104) Billing When creating costs for counseling services, the counselor should take consideration the client’s locality and financial status so that the normal fees do not create an undue hardship on the client. Counselor may assist clients in finding comparable and affordable services or adjust fees when legally permissible. Right to Privacy As a counselor, each and every client has a right to privacy whether a prospective or existing client. Therapists only request confidential information from clients when it is determined advantageous to the therapeutic process. Counselor protect the privacy of clients and only disclose information with consent to release information or with sound  legal/ethical confirmation. At the initiation and throughout the therapeutic process counselors inform clients of confidentiality limitations and identify situations situation in which confidentiality must be broken; such as when disclosure is required to protect clients or keep others from serious foreseeable harm or when legal requirements require release. HIPPA compliance and Compliance with credentialing board requirements for incorporating informed consent into practice As a professional counselor we are bound by HIPPA to provide documentation to potential clients how the practice and you will handle the release of confidential information. This document describes how mental/medical information about you may be disclosed and used and how the client may get access to this information. This document must have a compliance date on it and includes information pertaining to; treatment, health care operations, payment and other disclosures and uses without the clients consent. (Association, Meeting HIPAA Requirements, Notice of Privacy Practices and Client Rights Document, 2014) Responsibility to Warn and Protect Duty to warm and protect refers to the responsibility of the therapist or counselor to breach confidentiality if a client or other identifiable person or persons are in clear imminent danger. When duty to warn and protect come into play there must be clear evidence of imminent danger to the client or other persons, then the therapist/counselor must determine the seriousness of the threat and then must notify the person in danger and other persons in a position to protect that person from harm. The best possible example is the Tarasoff Act, which imposed inherent duty on therapist/counselors to warn potential victims of intended harm by a client, stating confidentiality ends where danger begins. The implications of the Tarasoff Act indicate that only notifying the police is not sufficient action to protect the therapist/counselor from a lawsuit if the client threatens to carry the threat out. (University, 2014) Client Record-Keeping/the counselor from liability A client’s right to a professional standard of care Documentation in a client’s record serves many purposes including; clinical/ administrative accountability, and documentation of the counselor’s  protection of the clients’ rights. This documentation also provides protection for counselors in helping them refute any and all allegations of incompetence or misconduct by the counselor. A counselors’ responsibility to protect the clients rights is normally documented in a series of forms signed by the client to include; informed/parental consent, fee agreements, treatment forms, treatment plans, signed client rights statement and treatment team staffing notes, and release of information protecting the client’s privacy with specific parameters. Finally, documentation in a client’s record can be used to protect and defend the therapist/counselor from unwarranted allegations of misconduct. A client record containing a thorough assessment, treatment plan, progress notes consistent with the plan, supervisory notes, billing for services rendered, and documented clients rights represent sound evidence of the counselor’s efforts to practice within their professional scope and standard of care. (University, 2014) In conclusion, the ethical responsibilities of a counselor are both broad and complex. This paper describes and discusses many of the aspect that are at the forefront of client/counselor relationship and protection of rights for both counselor and client. The knowledge required to become an ethical counselor comes with time and practice along with consulting colleges and primary supervision. Bibliography Association, A. C. (2014). 2014 ACA Code of Ethics. Alexandria: AMERICAN COUNSELING ASSOCIATION. Association, A. C. (2014). Meeting HIPAA Requirements, Notice of Privacy Practices and Client Rights Document. Alexandria: â€Å"Author†. COUNSELORS, N. B. (2012, June 8). NATIONAL BOARD FOR CERTIFIED COUNSELORS (NBCC). Retrieved from nbcc.org: http://www.nbcc.org/Assets/Ethics/NBCCCodeofEthics.pdf Davis, H. F.-M. (1996). Moral Principles. A Practitioner’s Guide to Ethical Decision Making, 2. Gerald Corey, C. C. (2104). Issues and Ethics in the Helping Professions (9 ed.). (K. Mikel, Ed.) Stamford, CT, USA: Cengage Learning. Retrieved November 18, 2014 Kitchner, K. S. (1984). Intuition, critical evaluation and ethical principles: The foundation for ethical decisions in counseling psychology. Counseling Psychologist, 12(3), 43-55. Retrieved November 19, 2014, from http://www.counseling.org/docs/ethics/practitioners_guide.pdf?sfvrsn=2 NAADAC. (2013). The Association for Addiction Professionals. Retrieved from NAADAC.org: http://www.naadac.org/code-of-ethics#i Ryan, R. M. (2011). Motivation and Autonomy in Counseling. The Counseling Psychologist, 193-260. University, G. C. (2014, November 18). Lecture 4. Retrieved from gcu.edu: https://lc-grad2.gcu.edu/learningPlatform/user/users.html?operation=loggedIn#/learningPlatform/loudBooks/loudbooks.html?viewPage=current&operation=innerPage ¤tTopicname=Client Rights, Counselor Responsibilities, and Confidentiality&topicMaterialId=71 WAGAMAN, A. (2013, July 25). Americans grow increasingly intolerant of extramarital affairs. Star Tribune. Retrieved from startribune.com: http://www.startribune.com/lifestyle/relationship/216813271.html

Research Paper and Essay

Pakistan literature, that is, the literature of Pakistan, is a distinct literature that gradually came to be defined after Pakistan gained nationhood status in 1947, emerging out of literary traditions of the Indian subcontinent. The shared tradition of Urdu literature and English literature of British India was inherited by the new state. Over a period a body of literature unique to Pakistan has emerged in nearly all major Pakistani languages, including Urdu, English, Punjabi, Balochi, Pushto and Sindhi. Pakistani English writing has had some readership in the country.From 1980's Pakistani English literature began to receive national and official recognition, when the Pakistan Academy of Letters included works originally written English in its annual literary awards. The topic ‘ Repersentation of Muslim Woman through Pakistan fiction novelists’ leads to describe every aspect of Muslim Woman’s life whether she lives in Islamic country or any other country. There a re many fiction novels written by Pakistani Writers available on Muslim Woman such as Zohra by Zeenuth Futehally; Rummana Futehally Denby,Fall of Imam by Nawal Sa?dawi,Does my head look big in this?y Randa Abdel-Fattah,Amina by Mohammed Umar,Mpas for lost lovers byNadeem Aslam,Things I never told my mother byUm Daoud, The girl in the tangerine scarf by Mohja Khaf, My name is Salma by Fadia Fariq, The writing on my forehead by Nafisa Haji, Marriage on the street corner of Tehran by Shahram Nadia, Sunlight on a broken coloumn by Attia Hosain, Dear prophet-A Woman’s story, Awife for my son by Ali Ghanem and Size of a mustard seed by Umm Juwayriyah, in which authors have described different situations of Muslim Women dealing in their lives.The aim of my paper is to discusss the way in which various representations of Muslim Women are constructed in Pakistan English novels through Pakistan novelist. This paper construct the Muslim women as universal, ahistorical, and undifference category who become essentialized through the uniqueness of their difference. Literature Review: The literature discussing Muslim Women in online context, similarly to that on Muslim Women ‘offline’ , seems to be focused on head and face covering, adding to the existing bodies of themes some new ones, notably reflections on islamic dress from marketing and fashion design perspectives.POOL writes that â€Å" Heavy black hijab dominates the representations of Muslim Women internationally. † Result: Muslim women in all over the world possess all the capabilities to cope up with everyday life , though she is being exploid in some islamic country but she has the power to deal with every evil with strength and courage. Research methodology: Paradigms I have used for my research is qualitative. Tools from which I have gathered my source are iternet- wikkipedia,Amazon. com, Desistore internet service, University of Texas press, Bookclubs and Clearmart.Method of my study is document analysis. Discussuion: The representation of muslim woman begins to become a more generic gendered difference largely uncomplicated by religious or racial difference. Muslim womem are depicted through same referents as European women with little textual difference or as, Khaf puts it, with â€Å"their Muslim-ness hovering in the background† is punctuated by certain shifts in the Muslim women sexuality. For example , she becomes less of a passive object of male desire and, in some scenario , recuperates some control over her sexuality’s development.According to Kahf the â€Å"traditional myths of Islam warned or went into latency during this period because the forces producing them( e. g. ,the church) has stalled†. During this curious lull†, she argues, â€Å"older myths of islam cut off from their sources, mulate, transform and seems to float randomly, while emerging new myths are still vague and unsteady†. Following the work of Mohj Kah f , I argue that the politics of representing Muslim Women has been tied to the material and ideological conditions characterizing the relationships between â€Å"the west† and islamic societies.Drawing upon the work of Fdir Faqir , we can become aware of the courage of the Muslim Woman in his novel â€Å"MY NAME IS salma†. It is the story which throws light on the inequalities and the dangers faced by Muslim Woman in some cultures when they have a child before marriage. The novel reveals the story of Muslim girl ‘salma’ who when become pregnant before marriage in her small village in LEVANT, her her innocent days swimming in the spring are gone forever. She is swept into prison for her own protection . To the sounds of her screams , her new born baby snatched away .In the middle of the most English of towns , EXETER, she learns good manners from her landlady and settles down with an Englishman . But deep in her heart the cries of her baby daughter still e cho. When she bear them no longer , she goes back to her village to find her. It is the journey that will change anything- and nothing . Slipping between the olive groves of the LEVANT and then rain-sticked pavements of EXETER, MY NAME IS SALMA is a searing portrayal of a Muslim woman’s courage into the face of insurmountable odds.DOES MY HEAD LOOK BIG IN THIS? is the story of 16-year-old Amal, an Australian-Palestinian who struggles with standard high school drama, in the context of being a Muslim girl who has recently adopted the hijab. So, before anything, masha’Allah! Muslim teenage girls are finally represented in young adult/teen fiction. Not as terrorists. Not as child brides. Instead, they’re average high school girls. Author Randa Abdel-Fattah takes this responsibility seriously and she tries to tackle every issue facing Muslim teen girls.It’s understandable that Abdel-Fattah would have a lot to achieve in a book like this. She takes on the hijab (the decision to go from non-hijabi to full-time hijabi, the reactions, the consequences), the image of Islam in the context of modern-day terrorism, boys and dating, culture vs. Islam, sexism within the Muslim community, racism, Islamophobia, prayer and wudu, fasting, and being the lone Muslim in an upper-class Australian prep school. She’s a Muslim teenager and she watches Sex in the City. She has a mad crush on her classmate Adam, showing that Muslims are in fact not asexual!It’s interesting to see how Abdel-Fattah handles the conflicting forces within Amal: she is intensely attracted to Adam (from forearm lust to his personality), but she does not believe any romantic relationship is appropriate outside marriage. Unfortunately, the hundred books about Muslim teenagers do not exist. Does My Head Look Big in This? is what we have, the only book to cover so many issues of Western Muslim teenagers. And, despite its flaws, the book succeeds in one of its very important goals: normalizing Muslim girls. Here is Amal.She’s not a â€Å"fanatic,† she’s not a terrorist, and she doesn’t lead a life of misery and abuse. She’s just a teenage girl, dealing with standard high school problems — but she navigates them her own Islamic way. Drawing upon the wrork of UM DAOUD, with her years of living and working among Muslims, we get the realistic picture of life for Muslim women. This time, in THINGS I NEVER TOLD MY MOTHERâ€Å"she illustrate the life of thousands of Muslim women who live in more secular Muslim countries and the struggle they face between Western influences on their societies and what little they know of islam.Things I Never Told My Mother is a story set in the North African country of Tunisia. Deception has become a way of life for Iman. Ignored in her early years by her career-minded parents, the sudden intrusion of her mother into her life pushes Iman to become something she never imagined. Though Muslim, her loose lifestyle leads her into many dangerous encounters with the opposite sex. When true love does finally come her way, she finds herself incapable of returning it, perhaps losing forever the best opportunity to escape her mother’s reach. Desperation leads to desperate measures and even a reanalysis of her own faith.Could God love her? This is the question Iman asks herself as she things back over all the things she never told her mother. This book brings us face-to-face with a side of Islam many of us do not realize is there–secular Islam. Yet, many Muslim live in areas that allow a freedom that sometimes causes them to swing from the very conservative norms of the religion to a lifestyle that looks virtually nothing like what we would consider normal for the average Muslim. The author writes in such a realistic way that I was instantly drawn into the plight of the women.This novel reveals that the Muslim community is much more complex than the stereo-ty pical terrorist version portrayed in the media. Things I never told my mother will do much to increase the reader’s understanding the Muslim world. It was a fascinating exploration into the lives of women in the Muslim culture. This book shows the secular Muslim lifestyle and a young woman who lives it, until she comes in contact with people with a living faith. The author has lived among these people and understands their varied lifestyles. This book is for older youth and adults, as there are sexual situations.These situations are important to the understanding of the culture and lifestyle. The size of a mustard seed by Umm Juwayriyah , is a story of being a Muslim in the city, in America here and now: the struggles, the joys, the sorrows, the complexities. It's very realistic, and hard to believe that it's a fictional account! The characters are well-rounded, complex, and multicultural. Sullivan ushers in a new era of fiction–urban Islamic fiction–with this t ale about Jameelah, a 27-year-old Muslim woman born to what appears to be one of the inner-city's stronger blended American-Muslim families.She works as a hair stylist with her two best friends in the city's only Muslim women's owned and operated hair salon, Covered Pearls. On appearance and material possessions alone Jameelah seems to be doing big things; she has a loving family, owns a fly car, she has her own apartment and she's not too far off from getting her second degree. What most don't know is that she is one traffic jam away from losing control of her life. Being a single Muslim woman isn't easy plus post 9/11 stresses still seem to haunt her. Jameelah prays for a change, but what will she do if change actually comes?When a prominent Imam proposes marriage to Jameelah she feels as if it's the blessing that she has been waiting for from Allah. She knows marrying him will change her life, but when an unexpected family crisis erupts and secrets are exposed, Jameelah is forced to make hard choices and put her complete faith in the only One unable to break it. The author has made the characters stunningly realistic, and has given them the ability to draw you into their plights and dilemmas. Not only do we have Jameelah, the main voice of the story, we also have her sister, Khadijah, their younger brother Adam, and a lovely young Muslim convert named Shevon.Follow Jameelah as she struggles with her personal demons of attitude, family obligations and the single life. Learn about the struggles of a young Muslim convert named Shevon whose family does not accept her chosen faith. Understand what it means to be a Muslim in a post 9/11 world. A fictional story about a young Muslim woman facing everyday life and spiritual challenges in her Muslim community in Central Massachusetts. This bookit opened a window for many of the non-Muslims in our group into the ways that Islam infuses everyday life for Muslims. Marriage on the street corners of Tehran by Nadia shahr amAlthough fiction, this book is a real eye-opener to how pervasive the discrimination of women is in the modern-day culture of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The author creatively uses the format of a novel as a vehicle to tell the true stories of women who have lived the harsh reality of a society and culture that demonizes and oppresses females. The shock of reading about modern men and women following the practices of sixth- century tribal Persia in the modern city of today's Tehran will make you realize how little we average American readers know about the everyday lives of ordinary Iranian girls and women.The ancient practice of â€Å"siggeh† allowed men to contract marriage with multiple women – a practice originally intended to provide male protection to widows and children who otherwise couldn't support themselves. This novel exposes how â€Å"siggeh† is now widely used by men simply as a man's way to legally â€Å"marry† multiple women and have s ex with them at his will – it is, in fact, a legal and religiously-sanctioned form of prostitution. The heart of the novel is the story of Ateesh, a strong, thoughtful and proud young woman, who struggles to find some modicum of independence in an overwhelmingly male-dominated society.Her father marries her off at the age of twelve to an older man she has never met, and she finds herself degraded, abused and isolated in the home of her husband. She finds the courage to escape and flees back to her home, but then finds herself rejected by her father and responsible for her own future. With limited options as a young, unmarried woman, she eventually turns to the practice of temporary marriage (â€Å"siggeh†), in which she contracts herself as a â€Å"temporary bride† to different men, and in this way is able to support herself and even save some of the money she earns to put herself through school.What is so amazing is that this practice of â€Å"temporary marria ge† is practiced openly and legally in this Islamic society, allowing married men to contract with â€Å"temporary brides† whenever they want in order to legally have sex outside of marriage — shocking, in a society where adultery is itself punishable by stoning to death. In the course of the book, the author explores many other practices that oppress and harm women in these societies, including blood money and honor killings.This novel is not only an interesting, thought-provoking story, but is also a moving exposition of the more positive aesthetic aspects of the Islamic culture, especially their beautiful gardens and dramatic poetry and music. The novel is an easy read but do not be fooled, Nadia Shahram deals with complex cultural, religious, and legal issues pertaining to Muslim women. The novel,ZOHRA BY Zeenuth Futehally, is first published in 1951, is set in Hyderabad in the early part of the twentieth century.It is the story of a young high-class Muslum w oman, who is forced to marry and thus put aside her natural inclination to read and write and lead an independent life. Zohra, whose emotional growth and development mirrors the development of the Indian national consciousness. Zohra is forced to marry against her wishes at the age of eighteen at the cost of her creative inclinations. What follows is her increasing distance from her husband who does not share her creative interests and her friendship and love for her brother-in-law Hamid, who is very much the face of modern India.Zohra subjugates her desire for Hamid in the face of her sense of inviolable duty, and finally escapes the social conventions that bind her, but only through the ultimate tragedy – death. What makes this novel valuable is the rich depiction of the way of life of Zeenuth Futehally's native Hyderabad, as well as her compassionate understanding of how women were restricted by the wishes of their parents and husbands. It evokes a period of civicunrest th at preceded Indian independence. Fictionalized account of a true story of a Muslim woman, victim of disguised evils in Islamic society.AMINA by Mohammed Umar is the dramatic story of the efforts of the heroine and her friends to bring about change in the social conditions of women in Nigeria addresses pressing political issues which rarely appear in fiction – the legal status of Muslim women, the limitations imposed on them by traditional and religious conventions, the restrictions on their economic activities, the effects of a corrupt patriarchal system on the society at large and women in particular, the humiliations visited on women as a result of unquestioned male power in personal relationships – from a woman's point of view.Ingeniously conceived and deftly written, this is a story about the emancipation of women in Nigeria from within. Not simply a social document, it engages the reader's sympathy through its portrayal of the attractive and believable woman after whom it is titled–Amina. Amina is a timely novel, and the execution of the narrative is so convincingly crafted that parallels with the historical legendary life of the 16th century Hausa ruler and famous warrior Queen Amina of Zazzau seem unavoidable. The novel leaves you feeling that there is hope for change in Nigeria.The Fall of the Imam by Nawal Sa?dawi is surrounded by a coterie of ministers, the Imam rules over an imaginary earthly kingdom. Bint Allah is the Daughter of God, a beautiful illegitimate girl. She is falsely accused by the Imam of adultery and sentenced to death by stoning. Then, during the annual Victory Holiday, the Imam himself is killed. The story of each of these deaths is told repeatedly, as this powerful and poetic novel reveals the underlying hypocrisy of any male-dominated religious state, and the insufferable predicament of women in a society that must ultimately self-destruct.In the preface to The Fall of the Imam, Saadawi explains that the text comes out of her experience in Egypt and elsewhere in the Middle East during a period of ten years before the novel appeared in 1987. She speaks of her many conversations with victims of Arab culture, such as the Iranian woman whose â€Å"little girl† was raped by her jailers, and the Sudanese woman who accompanied Saadawi on a visit to the â€Å"Association for People with Amputated Hands,† where she saw many of those who had been punished under Muslim law, called â€Å"Shariat.Confronting the horrors of what men can do to men, but also what they can do to women and children, Saadawi constructed a fantasy narrative of a girl called Bint Allah, who is stoned to death for fornication, as well as crimes against God and the State–God and the State being virtually synonymous with those in power. The decision to employ fantasy as the means of representing the horrors of a repressive State entailed some risk for Saadawi in her efforts at bearing witness to atrocitie s against women.Ali Ghalem's A Wife for my Son is a sensitive account not only of how the traditional constraints of hierarchical marriage affect an intelligent, independent young woman, but also of how economic exile into a â€Å"post-colonial† society stifle the ambitions and the personality of a young husband. â€Å"Western† readers are mostly unfamiliar with the details of how marriage and family lives work in North Africa, and may be surprised at the modernity and subtlety with which the author presents his themes.A young, well-educated, woman is suddenly — and apparently without reason — converted into a bride-to-be in a conventional arranged marriage. In a patriarchal society like that of contemporary Algeria, this means not only submission to her husband's desires and neglect, but also a radical shift away from her beloved home to that of her new in-laws. Fatiha chafes under the discrimination and even dislike she encounters in her new environment , especially since her husband has gone back to seek work in France and left her â€Å"alone. â€Å"Hocine understands that e, too, is alienated by custom and by distance, but he does not have the sensitivity nor the education, nor the modernity, to characterize his loneliness in the way his young wife does. Ali Ghalem carefully and patiently describes a young woman's maturing in hostile circumstances which she is, finally, able to alter and re-create into a a network of support and even pleasure and fun. In the end, it is the young men, isolated from their customs, food and language in a hostile and discriminatory environment, who have the greatest difficulties in maintaining their customs, their personality, their birthright.This is an unusually sensitive and informative account of how inflexible gender roles affect a young generation and of the innate strengths, particularly of the young women, which can bend those roles into fulfilment and even comfort. Blasphemy promises to g enerate the same degree of excitement as her first book. Set in South Pakistan, Blasphemy is an enticing novel by Tehmina Durrani. Angry and courageous in outlook, it establishes Ms. Durrani among the foremost writers of the Subcontinent.Inspired by a true story, Blasphemy is a searing study of evil, an uncompromising look at the distortion of Islam by predatory religious leaders. In prose of great power and intensity, the author tells the tragic story of the beautiful Heer, brutalized and corrupted by Pir Sain, the man of God, her Husband. Blasphemy depicts the struggle of a Muslim Woman against all that is contrary to what Islam stands for. It is an amalgamation of fact and fiction, blending to disguise and protect the victims of a horrible human tragedy, while exposing the powerful religious imposters who prey on a wretched and powerless people.A shocking tale of cruelty, sex and violence. In order to find a cure for any disease its imperative that you detect it early, isolate it and then try and cure it. It is in this regard that credit should go to Ms. Durrani for getting to the root of a disease that has been rampant in many of the urban and rural areas of Pakistan. Blasphemy is a tale that demands concentrated effort from its readers to try and rid the country of the menace of female abuse. It gives a horrific account of how the custodians of religon are using their ‘special knowledge' to exploit the lliterate masses.The central character, Heer, is one such victim of this form of designed oppression by the antagonist Pir Sain. It’s her exceptional beauty that catches Pir Sain’s eyes at first. After abusing her body on the night of their marriage, Pir Sain sets out to control her mind and soul as Heer is forcibly adapted to a life alien to her and unbearable to any human being. Blasphemy is a tale where day after day the body keeps surrendering and the soul keeps rebelling as Heer searches for a moment of peace.Through Heer’s e xperience the author brings out a blasphemous way of life, unknown to the layman, practiced not only by Pir Sain but also by his followers. Pir Sain’s abstinence from going to his wife during Ramadan is the action of any orthodox Muslim. His beating of Heer for missing her prayers further secures his image in front of the extremists. But then there is his demand that Heer aborts their child so he may satisfy his carnal desires, demands immediate retribution. Despite all his vices, he is holy and almost divine by his followers.Blasphemy is a tale where Heer exposes the evils of these ‘holy-men' – first to herself and then to us. CONCLUSION: The evolving muslim women archetype has undergone several transmutations. Her textual presence has emvodied and symbolized the political , economic, cultured and ideological relations between Europe and the Muslim world at a particular historical momonts. Muslim woman have been represented discursively as products of both the m ale and feminist gaze within the context of varying relations power and domination.

US Public Opinion and Foreign Policy Coursework

US Public Opinion and Foreign Policy - Coursework Example US Public Opinion and Foreign Policy While many believe that public opinion can and does matter to policy makers, others contend that public opinion complicates or is of relative importance to policy making. If the issue is of great importance to the public and there is a common consensus as to how the problem may be resolved between a majority of the public and policy makers, policy makers are likely to be facilitated in their foreign policy aims. The most recent and significant example of this is the US incursion into Iraq in 2003. When an issue is of lesser importance, resulting in a less educated public, the policy making process can be complicated. Needless to say foreign policy making is the most difficult when it concerns issues of great importance and little common consensus. To ensure political success, presidents and other policy makers must use an understanding of public attitudes to structure their foreign policies for presentation to their constituents. Public opinion is not as malleable as some believe it to be. We only have to point to various examples of American politicians attempting to coerce public opinion on issues that are unpopular with the American public and their lack of success in doing so. One of the major underpinnings of representative democracy is the belief that government policy, both foreign and domestic, is controlled by public opinion and the power of the vote. Whether or not this is a reality with regards to foreign policy has been a question of debate between various theories of international relations over the course of the twentieth century. While most students of the topic admit that public opinion can have some sort of affect on military, economic and political practices abroad, the extent of this impact is fiercely debated, most notably by the realist and liberal camps. Realist theory claims that public opinion is unpredictable and ever changing. Because foreign policy often has its affect in places that are so far removed geographically public opinion has an irrational edge to it. Although Realists do admit that public opinion can have a considerable impact on foreign policy making in democracies, it is for this reason that it is most often "erratic and incoherent" and they conclude that "a good foreign policy is incompatible with the democratic process and therefore the decision-making process should be isolated from the vagaries of public opinion." 1 Foreign policy is far too remote and complex in its issues and very often the public is not well informed enough for it to respond rationally. From the liberal point of view public opinion is seen as a positive element which could bring about a more reasonable and peaceful foreign policy.

Management communication - memo Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Management communication - memo - Assignment Example It is an inter-level choice because of one heading and use of white space to stress points. It is also an extra-level choice because of using information displays of green blocks with information being stressed the bottom of the document. The document has used a framework of imaginary columns to merge graphic elements. The document can be improved utilizing headings to set points, using more than one font, as well as color moderation (Glushko & McGrath, 2008). Page Design 3: It is within the intra-level of design because of the use of different fonts and sizes, some in italics and others in bold. It is also an inter-level choice because of the different headings of different fonts and sizes. The document uses white space to accentuate points. It is also an extra-level choice because of using a colored picture at the centre of the document, and four other graphical pictures, which are black and white, evenly distributed within the document. The document is within the supra-level of document design because of the paper size change, grids that delineate the look of every section of the document. The document can be improved by utilizing one or two fonts, as well as using color highlights (Garcia, 2007). Page Design 4: It is within the intra-level of design because of the use of one type of font in bold. It is an inter-level choice because of the dissimilar headings of different sizes. The document utilizes white space to highlight points. It is also an extra-level choice because of using a colored picture placed at the bottom center of the document. It is also within the supra-level of document design because of the, color formats, grids that describe the look of every section of the document. The document can be improved by using two fonts or less and putting important elements in the top left and lower right quadrants of the page (Carliner et. al.,

Water shortages at Jordan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Water shortages at Jordan - Essay Example Almost 70% of all water is used for agricultural purposes and less than 30% is consumed by people (Jordans Water Shortage, 1998). Overall, this issue requires immediate response not to get worse. This problem requires complex approach and collaboration of people, government and even countries that border with Jordan. First of all, the government develops the water management model to make sure that the supply of water is growing and the demand is decreasing. Second, strategic relationships with Israel and Syria make sure that Jordan is backed up by its neighboring countries. Moreover, investments into existing water supply infrastructure strengthen the position of the country and avoid exploring new resources of water which is quite costly for the country. Finally, the country maintains clear data about water consumption on its territories in order to see how the above-mentioned activities influence on the situation with water shortage in Jordan. Government, local people and activists seem to be involved in the issue; they control their water consumption and support governmental

Economic Theories and the Music Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Economic Theories and the Music Industry - Essay Example Musicians have made a living out of selling their music formats and thus the identification of the importance of the industry. However, of contemporary times, the sales of music formats have fallen continuously. It is the fear of many that there will lack and industry in this sector after some years and this can gain attribution to several economic theories. One of the standing economic theories in the identification of this is Market Anomaly. The key aspects of this theory are that there is inefficiency in the sales of a particular product in a given economic sector may depreciate and go against efficient market hypothesis (Fabozzi, 2011, 71). There are two main reasons that lead to market anomaly and they are ranges in two spectrums, the structural factors and the behavioral aspects. Focusing on the structural factors, one of the key components is unfair competition. The music industry is one that has undergone numerous changes over the years and thus the need to keep up with the c hanges. The changes have been caused by the development of Information Technology and thus the necessity to keep up with current trends in the creation of music formats. This necessity has led to different people in the various music sectors to develop a competition culture bases on the goal of most market sales. However, this unfair competition has led to their loss of customers rather than an increase and this is based from the fact that they focus more on the quantity of music produced to outdo each other rather than the quantity (Fabozzi, 2011, 125). The customers do not care about the quantity of music formats produced but rather on the quality. When customers find the quality not appealing to their needs, they decrease their focus on the particular music and spend the money in another manner. Unfair competition also comes up based on other entertainment industries rather than music. A major competitor in entertainment is the movies. The movie industry also started a long time ago and the amount of developments that the sector has witnessed over the past decade goes nothing short of overwhelming. Many movie directors have invented a lot of technology that has drawn more attention to entertainment fans. An example of this is the introduction of 3D films that give the viewer a livelier experience while watching a movie. Upon the introduction of the aspect, the music industry is in a fast search to develop a new concept in terms of music formats that will outdo the theatre developments (Robert, 2012, 153). This form of competition is healthy but of contemporary reports, it has led to various rivalries developing between music producers and movie directors and this has not had a positive impact on music formats. Another factor in the theory that affects the sale of music formats negatively is market transparency. In this case, not many people recognize the various genres of music formats that society is willing to offer due to less publicity made by the respo nsible promoters (Nilsson, 2010, 63). Less promotion by advertisement is one conflict that has hit markets in the 21st century and the credit for this goes to the high amount of inflation that the current global market is facing. The less the promotion made the more anonymous music formats are in society. This is one contribution to the poor music market figures in the 21st century. Moreover, regulatory actions for various music formats by authorities have led to a decrease in the number of sales over the past few years.

Medical Ethics in the clinical laboratory science Essay

Medical Ethics in the clinical laboratory science - Essay Example The ethical problem will be lying about the capabilities and abilities of john in fulfilling his the new jobs roles. This will dirty the reputation of the manager’s name for a bad recommendation, and it will put john into deep waters for failure to take full charge. The primary stakeholders in the scenario are the laboratory manager and john. The secondary stakeholder is the clinical laboratory that is offering the new job while the tertiary stakeholders are the society and the clinical laboratory science profession (Zhong, 22). Being the manager, the practical alternative is writing a recommendation based on the actual abilities of john. The professional code of ethics addresses the situation and states that the integrity of the profession should be placed above individual and personal interests. As the manager, it is best to mention in the letter, that john is not fit in the position based on his skills level. This enables the manager to work with integrity, respect and competence in accordance with the code of ethics. It is best not to tell john the he was not recommended for the job in order to maintain a peaceful, working environment (Jones, 370). I am a worker working in the night with other technicians in a 300 bed community hospital. One of the co-workers working in the evening shifts is faking the quality control figures. However, after making the realization, I talk to the supervisor about the situation and he tells me to do my work and only mind my business. No one in the department seems to take the quality control matter seriously, yet the errors are avoidable in order to achieve better patient’s results in quality control as well as enhance quality care delivery to the patients. The ethical problem in the scenario is falsification and negligence of the test results yet the supervisors does nothing about it even after being told of the situation in hand. The

Response Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 17

Response - Assignment Example Photographers capture the relationship of humans and nature. For instance, it is easy to explain and provide compelling evidence such as the effects of climate change through a photograph. Photography presents new and uncharted environments, and for that reason, a photographer needs adequate preparation for any environment. Evidently, photography goes beyond the concept of a business or a profit-making endeavor. It involves a passion of capturing the moment at the right time and identifying the audience. Through a photograph, humans can predict the next course of action (National Geographic 1). Several photographs have changed human perception towards their activities in the world. A perfect example is the picture that captured vulture standing next to a starving child in Ethiopia started a worldwide campaign on famine that ravaged the country in the 1980s. While other forms of capturing a moment, such as videos, may exaggerate an issue, photography presents an honest representation of the experience. Clearly, photography is life changing and makes people care. It is a powerful means of representation that changes human emotions. Through great photography, one can understand other communities and their time, and create an open-minded society. Happiness and tragedy all define human existence, and it is beneficial if photographers capture such events in an honest manner. Undoubtedly, the National Geographic photographers present an important point on the nature of interrelations in the present society. While the society largely believes that humans do not care about others or the environment, the video confirms that they do actually care. Photographs have a connection to human emotions in a powerful manner that can change the perception of humans to the society. They connect people through a universal language that forces one to care about their

Research and development Essay Example for Free

Research and development Essay The Human resource management department of the business is responsible for the hiring and firing of the staff that work in Boots PLC outlet stores and any other jobs that are related to the company. Their main aim to make sure that there is the right amount of workers in the specified place at the right time in order to contribute to the maximum output that the staffing effort can help towards. The hiring and firing is very important as it makes sure that the right people are hired for the job that are in appropriate situations to fulfill vacancies. On the other hand however the firing is just as important. If staff are not pulling their weight or are incapable of carrying out the jobs they are meant to they may be fired. Also if there is no need for all staff then they may be laid off. This is a way of maximizing profits as less go on output of wages which is a great percentage of the businesses output. The HRM is also responsible for the training of staff. It is their responsibility to make sure that all staff is fully trained for the job they are employed for. These increases the customer reliability and satisfaction as when staff are asked questions they will hopefully know they answers and also that they are capable of approaching customers comfortably and in a good fashion. This adds to customer satisfaction and this is important to Boots it is also one of their objectives listed previously in the report. HRM are responsible for forecasting labour amounts and the amount of man power that will be needed at different times of the day week and year. If manpower is low in rush hours or periods such as Christmas then the company may not reach its maximum out put through mistake of their own. Staff receives appraisals when they work for Boots. This lets them know if the business is happy with them and if they are considered a valued member of the work force. The appraisals are again responsibility of the HRM department and they help to maximize business by insuring workers are reaching their full potential within in the business. Boots recently proposed to train up 7000 people to become more knowledgeable about technology so that the business will benefit from this. Boots PLC also employ a further 45% of their workforce on top of their usual numbers to help in outlet stores over Christmas period with tills, stock rotation and demonstrations. This shows the business has been planning the workforce amounts according to potential times of increases in demand. This area of the business can be very economical and save the business money when it comes to hiring and firing staff. This is however also very beneficial to the staff also. When jobs in the business become available instead of employing new staff they promote current staff. This saves money as described in management styles later on. The HRM area of the business works towards the organization and in turn globalization objective of the business. The statement of we aim to develop staff and provide them with the right skills and attitude in order to achieve the organizations goals suggests that it be aimed at all the objectives of the business, which will reflect on the globalization and expansion conclusively. The fact that more staff was hired acts on the objective of improving customer satisfaction as more staff means that there are more hands to deal with the tasks needed which leaves more staff to be available to help customers and aid them with their shopping needs. The Marketing section of the business is responsible for satisfying customers needs at the right prices and once again as in Boots objective consumer satisfaction. To do this the marketing section of Boots PLC is responsible for researching what the target markets want and interpreting what their future needs would be and how they will change. They persuade the customer to buy products by advertising. They either increase awareness by advertising to all on TV or radio, or advertise specifics. These include in store adverts for particular products, which they make the customer, think they need. Free demos of some products also help to draw in custom and Boots does this in its make-up and its perfume range where there is always trained staff available to recommend and advice. The marketing aspect of the business has lead to the birth of the Boots Advantage Card. Boots customer services is an outstanding department as they have been able to established customer loyalty by the use of this Advantage card. Referring back to Boots objectives the wish to increase customer loyalty is proven as the Advantage Card is used by more than 70% of all key customers. Boots objectives on marketing were to increase promotion and stature by globalization. This has been attempted by opening several firms in Taiwan. A strategy that separated them from their competitors and attracted thousands of consumers over the Christmas period was the three for two-mix and match strategy which was introduced after a market research poll into marketing strategies return the mix and match as a popular suggestion. This was reflected by the feedback it returned. It is very important to be able to forecast and predict what will happen to the market. In order for a company to success in the long term it must have an idea of where it is going. One of the best ways to do this, which also show the success of the business, is to look at its accounts. This will show if there is a gradual increase or decrease in profit and it will show what products sell, how they sell and in what quantity are they likely to still be required as the majority of tangible inessential goods reach saturation point and are no longer needed. The finance section of the business is the area that looks after the accounts and the money flow forecasting. The Financial area of the business makes sure all the finances of a business are properly recorded. This involves keeping detailed accounts either manually or on a computer of all the money that comes in, and how it comes in to the business and how and where it goes out. The financial information is used by Boots and published in the yearly reports to show how the business is getting on. Boots PLC uses computer technology to record all the information and trained staff regularly analyzes it to spot correlation in output or product relationships. This is done to try and find out where Boots could benefit from altering the market and changing product ranges or increasing product base. This section of the business is also capable of raising finance when the business needs to raise capital for an investment or expansion. There is only a small aspect of the objective system that it appears the financial function touches on. This is the objective to act towards modernization. Boots keeps its financial records in the form of computer files as apposed to storing them manually. This shows that Boots keeps up with the development of technology, which was a specific objective. This shows that an objective has been worked towards and met which has been beneficial as now the financial function is a lot less time consuming in storing data and retrieving it. Although there is always more problems with modern technology it is likely that in the long run it is less time consuming. Production is another one of the functional areas but as there is little that Boots actually produce due to the fact that they are in the tertiary sector this function does not really affect them. The only way it does affect them is that Boots must keep in touch with the production (secondary industry) business to ensure that they can meet the demands that they need in order to increase customer satisfaction. Coinciding with this the staff at Boots must check produce that is received from the production companies to make sure it is correct. This section does not really affect any objectives that the business has directly. However indirectly it does regard the objective of wishing to increase the proportion of their own brand. There is little evidence I can provide of this objective been carried out but they do have their own cosmetic range that goes by the name of No7. This appears to have been doing very well. The main cogs of the business are the Administration section. This keeps the day to day workings of the business going. Again these are skilled staff trained in their field and Boots pride them selves on the level of training and standards that their staff operates to. The administration maintains the business premises and equipment and if anything goes wrong they are responsible for fixing it of finding someone to do so. Anyone who works for Boots doing photocopying, printing (stationary jobs) catering, computer services, data storage, all these types of jobs come under the job description of Administration. As boots is expanding it is relying less on its own workers to carry out some of these tasks and it calls in people from out side the business, this is called outscoring, these people are usually found by the administration team. The administrative function as it is a necessity in the business and keeps it flowing hardly relates as a contribution to any objective at all. The only objective I can see that the administrative function applies to id the modernization of the company. This is due to the fact that in order for the administration staff to act efficiently they need to be modernizing as technology such as computers develops. This will benefit all areas of the business. As the target markets demands are forever changing and new fashions are coming in and the months of the years come in and out the products that Boots supply are always changing. It is hard to keep on top of the supply for goods, as there are so many aspects that alter the product demands it is hard to be aware of where they will go next. The research and development of the business is responsible for trying to find out where to go next. They keep the other parts of the business informed about changes as much as they can. This is a main part of the marketing for the business. The research and development sector look at sales figures, accounts, customer trends and spending and try and deduct where the majority of the money goes and also where it doesnt. They do not look to replace products all the time but also to look for new products that would be beneficial to bring into the product range to increase sales or attract new business. It was the idea of the research and development of Boots to open the optician section of the business, as this was an area that they had not yet spread into and would be beneficial. The people in the research and development part of boots also look at other businesses and see how they operate, what they sell and how much they charge. All this contributes to the smooth running of the business. As Boots main objective is to produce a well-established firm that caters for the consumers needs research and development is a major part of decision making. Diversification is also reliant on this department as in order to diversify research needs to be carried out to find out which areas it would be beneficial to divert into in respects of the customers and the company as a whole. Boots has got a large research and development department. The paragraph below shown what affects the research and development has had on the companys expansion. The first Health and Beauty Experience store opened in Kensington High Street in September this year. It moves Boots into new areas of the expanding health and beauty market. Services include physiotherapy, osteopathy, homeopathy, herbalism, aromatherapy, reflexology and nutrition. These sit alongside beauty services including facials massage, false tan, ear piercing, pedicure, manicure, nail bars, and make-overs, plus lifestyle advice on weight management, smoking, sleep management, relaxation and stress management. All combine to offer a total wellbeing offer. This paragraph gives list of some of the new products and services that have been introduced. These expansions in the business would not have been the result if research and development had not taken place. This shows that research and development has also contributed to the firm expanding, which was another objective of Boots.

An Inquiry Into Pigou And Welfare Economics Economics Essay

An Inquiry Into Pigou And Welfare Economics Economics Essay Arthur Cecil Pigou (1877-1959) was among the last in the long line of classical economists associated with the Cambridge School. Pigou first entered Kings College, Cambridge on a Minor Scholarship in History and Modern Languages (1896). Observing his palpable brilliance, Alfred Marshall and Henry Sidgwick together encouraged him to pour his academic vigour into the study of political economy (Collard, 1981). Although significantly influenced by Henry Sidgwick, Pigou was foremost Marshalls disciple and is often considered the embodiment and extension of Marshall himself (Walker, 1989). Like Marshall, Pigou was attracted to the practical value of economics and believed the main purpose of learning economics was to be able to see through the bogus economic arguments of politicians (Champernowne, 1959: 264); he believed economics to be an instrument for social betterment not intellectual gymnastics. The numerous works by Pigou cover various fields of economic thought. Pigous marked interest in how government policy could increase national well-being? is apparent throughout his work and led him to invented much of modern public finance especially arguments and rationale for government intervention in the economy (Pressman, 1999). Furthermore, his notable contribution, Economics of Welfare (1932) occupies a unique position in the history of economic thought and has earned him recognition as the father of modern welfare economics (Groenewegen, 2003). A study into Pigous writings on the economics of welfare requires one to be selective due to the wide-ranging scope of topics that may be covered; this paper will therefore concentrate on the theoretical backbone of Pigous work and aim to analyse different critiques of his theory of welfare in Section I. Section II will consider the foundations of and influences on Pigous work and explore criticisms of a lack of originality in his writ ings. Finally, in Section III, we will investigate the Pigous position on government intervention and analyse his suggested policy prescriptions. SECTION I Welfare economics is concerned to investigate the dominant influence through which the economic welfare of the world, or of a particular country, is likely to be increased. The hope of those who pursue it is to suggest lines of action or non-action on the part of the State or of private persons that might foster such influences (Pigou 1951: 287) Welfare economics is a normative subject, distinct from positive economics. Whilst the theoretical elements of positive economics provide theorems that can be tested, normative economics and the propositions of welfare economics have altogether a very different content (Graff, 1957: 2). The difference between normative and positive theory becomes apparent when we attempt to determine whether welfare actually increases or not; analysis of a positive theory requires testing of its conclusions which are clearly observable, conversely to test a normative theory of welfare one must look to test its assumptions rather than conclusions since welfare is not an observable quantity. Thus the assumptions attached to a normative theory must be carefully and thoroughly scrutinised and the credibility of a theory of welfare depends on how realistic and relevant its assumptions are (Graff, 1957: 3). This section will, in turn analyse the major assumptions made by Pigou for the development of his co ncepts of economic welfare and national dividend which are key to his theory. Economic Welfare Pigou defined economic welfare subjectively as quantities of satisfaction or states of consciousnessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[with] psychic returns of satisfaction, (Pigou 1926: 10). Recognising that subsequent investigation into the causes that could affect welfare would be impracticable, he limits the scope of the inquiry to that part of social welfare that can be brought directly or indirectly into relation with the measuring-rod of money (Pigou 1926: 11). To justify the restrictions on his scope of elements compiling the social welfare he postulates that since a persons income is an observable money value, it could be inferred that, under certain conditions, people could enjoy a level of material welfare that could be purchased by their income (Mishan, 1969). The connection between increased income and the other elements of welfare is much harder to define therefore Pigou explicitly recognises that since economic welfare is only a part of welfare as a wholeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦so that a given change in economic welfare will seldom synchronise with an equal welfare as a whole (Pigou, 1926: 12). Thus, although a change in economic welfare may not measure the change in total welfare, it may always affect the change therefore Pigou concludes that economic welfare and total welfare are positively related (Durlauf and Blume, 2008). UTILITY DEBATE? Doesnt he assume something stupid about utility interpersonal utility or something? National Dividend The conception of the National Dividend is not an academic toy, but a practical instrument of great power designed for service in the concrete solution of social problems (Pigou, 1912: 493) In order to predict the effects of policies on material welfare at the aggregate level, an aggregate measure was required. Pigou identified the national dividend as the appropriate aggregate measure suggesting that economic causes act on the economic welfare of any country, not directly, but through the making and using of the objective counterpart of economic welfare which the economists call the national dividend (Pigou, 1926: 31). The national dividend is described as the flow of goods and services annually produced after maintaining capital intact and is a key concept for Pigous analyses of how policies or institutions affect economic welfare (Scott, 1984: 59). Pigou outlines the two criteria for detecting improvements in social welfare which reflect the importance of this key concept to his theory of welfare; firstly increases in the value of national dividend, provided the share for the poor is not thereby reduced, will result in an increase in social welfare. Secondly, transfe rs from the rich to the poor without any reduction in the national dividend will also yield higher social welfare (Pigou, 1926). Several critics have voiced opposition to Pigous definition of national dividend specifically on the issue of maintaining capital intact.  [1]  He states that if the quantity of every unit of a countrys capital stock remains unchanged over a certain period, then even is the money value has increased/decreased, the total capital stock has been exactly maintained. He argues that changes in the money value of the stock due to general price changes or changes in the rates of interest are irrelevant to the national dividend (Scott, 1984: 60). Only a decline in the physical quantity of capital has to be made good (or replaced) with new capital of the same value (provided the valuation is made when the deterioration actually takes place) and depreciation due to interest rates or price changes are irrelevant (Pigou, 1926: 46). The national income in any period is therefore the sum of consumption and gross investment minus that portion of gross investment necessary to maintain capital int act (Scott, 1984; Pigou, 1926). Myint (1948) highlights the inadequacies of transposing this concept of maintaining capital intact (which is essentially a physical level of analysis) to derive the value of capital from expected value of income yielded (essentially a subjective level of analysis) by merely making good the physical wear and tear (Myint, 1948: 174). He finds fault with the fact that depreciation (due to obsolescence  [2]  ) must be allowed for even if capital goods are in perfect condition. This issue also sparked a heated debate between Hayek (1941) and Pigou (1941) in which Hicks (1942) also intervened. Hayek attacked Pigou on this point stating, what is meant by maintaining capital intact [according to Pigou] consists in effect of the suggestion that for this purpose we should disregard obsolescence [whether it is due to foreseeable or unforeseeable causes] and require merely that such losses of value of the existing stock of capital goods be made good as are due to physical wear and tear (Haye k, 1941: 276). Hayek finds Pigous procedure neither useful theoretically nor in actual practice (Hayek, 1941: 276). The root of the disagreement lies in their different conceptions of depreciation; while Pigou maintains that only a decline in the present value of capital due to factors which affect the expected quantity is relevant whilst Hayek argues the the real problem of maintaining capital intact arises not after such losses have been made, but when the entrepreneur plans his investment (Hayek, 1941: thus a decline in expected quantity will count as depreciation regardless of whether it is due to factors affecting expected quantity or prices (Hill, 1999: 2). While Hayeks biting criticism seemingly undermines Pigous conception of national dividend, Scott (1984) contends both arguments are in fact sound and it is the purpose for which the definition is of critical importance; whilst Pigou was concerned with net social income, Hayek was referring essentially to individual people o r firms. READ HICKS ADDITION TO THE DEBATE AND ADD IN WHAT HE SAYS ABOUT THE DIFFERENCE IN PURPOSES FOR THE CONCEPT. SECTION II When a man sets out upon any course of inquiry, the object of his search may be either light or fruit either knowledge for its own sake or knowledge for the sake of good things to which it leads, (Pigou, 1926: 3) Pigou is widely considered the father of modern welfare economics and the basic concepts of early welfare theory are attributed to his work, Economics of Welfare (1926). However, there are commentators who speculate that no matter how innovative Pigou may have been, many of his major theoretical contributions to welfare analysis lacked originality and were based on pre-Marshallian concepts; ODonnell (1979) implies Henry Sidgwick is a major influence who is not attributed sufficient credit. ODonnell (1979) argues that as a firm follower of Marshall, Pigou utilised his marginal analyses of market processes. However, they differed on their beliefs in the ability of competitive markets and economic freedom to stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty; Marshall was confident that competitive markets, left alone, would lead to efficient allocation and that government intervention would create so many disincentives that it may cause more harm than good (Walker, 1989). Conversely Pigou argued that fairness is only to be achieved through extensive government intervention. Moreover, when Pigou (1926, 1928) sought to formalise the problems of market failure and the appropriate government solutions, he turned to Sigdwicks earlier propositions on government intervention. More than half a century before Pigou, Sidgwick and J. S. Mill initiated the transition from the non-interventionist approach of the classical tradition to the more interventionist orientation that characterised neoclassical welfare theory and influenced Pigous theory of welfare (Medema, 2007). Subsequently it is argued that in defining welfare and the general qualifications for a welfare criterion (wherein the similarities between basic welfare considerations of Pigou and Sidgwick are obvious), Pigou is not original (ODonnell, 1979). He was, however, genuinely innovative in introducing the terms Marginal Social Net Product (MSNP) and Marginal Private Net Product (MPNP); although Sidgwick (1897) expressed similar conclusions about divergences between private and social benefits marginal considerations were not part of his analysis and his generalised concept was not as concise as Pigous (ODonnell, 1979). Therefore, whilst Pigous contribution to welfare economics is undeniable, he is criticised for developing what is essentially a synthesis of ideas and analyses from Marshall and Sidgwick. Yet, if we again invoke the purpose for his inquiry and his beliefs about the practical use of economics, the fruits of his contribution yielded an expansive literature on not only welfare economics but also public finance and environmental economics for which he is undeniably responsible; the purpose isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that the fabric of theory shall be a yielding garment, fitting the varied and complex reality of economic life as closely as is demanded by the criterion that the conclusions to which the theory leads shall be both useful and general (Young, 1913: 686). SECTION III The working of self-interest is generally beneficent, not because of some natural coincidence between the self-interest of each and the good of all, but because human institutions are arranged so as to compel self-interest to work in directions in which it will be beneficent (Cannan in Pigou, 1926: 130) We move now to the subject of government intervention in the economy. In his relatively unknown essay on State Action and Laissez-Faire Pigou stated the real question is not whether the State should act or not, but on what principles, in what degree and over what departments of economic life its action should be carried on (Pigou in Medema, 2009: 65). In Economics of Welfare (1926) Pigou controversially advocates the need for government intervention in the form of taxes and bounties to correct for market failures and our defective telescopic faculty. External Economies In Economics of Welfare (1926) Pigou originated the innovative theoretical distinction between social and private benefits and costs, illustrating how private production costs for a firm do not necessarily reflect total social costs of production. This analysis formed the basis for much of the analysis in modern environmental economics (Myint 1948). He states that when value of MSNP (marginal physical product of the factor as appropriated by the producer * market price of product) is greater than MSNP (total of products and services from employment of the additional factor no matter to whom they may accrue) external economies exist and the government must intervene in the market to ensure the industry contracts the optimum output may be reached and economic welfare may thus be maximised (Pigou, 1926). Coase what coase said economists have tended to overestimate the advantages of government intervention and that such intervention may not actually be desirable in certain situations? Monopolies Pigou says that monopolies are bad and that governments should intervene to make sure they dont overrun? Something like this? But people argue against that and say that this is not good and his assumptions are wrong! CONCLUSION General optimum and national dividend are major elements that constitute his theory of welfare. Section I National Dividend National Dividend and General Optimum National Dividend he outlines the national dividend which is defined as _______. Is very important because it is the measure he outlines as the aggregate indicator of welfare. Discussion Hayek criticised his conception of the national dividend because of his assumption of Maintaining capital intact stating that __________________ General Optimum and Criterion for welfare maximisation He says that anything that increases the national dividend, so long as it doesnt reduce the share going to the poor will increase total welfare and anything that increases the share of the poor so long as it doesnt affect the national dividend, will also increase welfare. Discussion Buchanan (http://www.heinonline.org.ezproxy.webfeat.lib.ed.ac.uk/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/jlecono2id=1size=2collection=journalsindex=journals/jlecono#126) outlines the difference between Pigous optimum and Paretos optimum ODonnell criticises Pigou for lack of originality, claiming that he has basically created a synthesis of Pre-Marshallian ideas and Marshallian analysis (the only thing original being his contribution of MSNP and MPNP). Myint criticises Pigou for trying to impose Marshalls physical analysis onto what should be a subjective level of analysis: since welfare theory, as argued by graff, is a normative theory. Section II External Effects Pigou basically says that private firms do not always take into account the Monopolies MONOPOLIES 6. I do not propose to say very much in this paper about the welfare economics of monopoly and imperfect competition, for this is altogether too large a subject to be capable of useful treat- ment on the scale here available. A very large part of the estab- lished theory of imperfect competition falls under the head of welfare economics, and it is actually much the strongest part of the theory which does so. Considered as a branch of positive economics, the theory of imperfect competition is even now not very convincing; the assumption that the individual producer has a clear idea of the demand curve confronting him has been justifiably questioned, and the presence of intractable elements of oligopoly in most markets has been justifiably suspected. When it is considered as a branch of welfare economics, the theory of imperfect competition has a much clearer status. Oligopoly and monopolistic competition fall into their places as reasons for the inequality between price and marginal c ost, whose consequences are then a most fertile field for study along welfare lines. It is perhaps rather to be regretted that modern theories of imperfect competition have not been cast more overtly into this form; for the general apparatus of welfare economics would have made it possible to state some of the most important pro- positions in a more guarded way than usual. Take, for example, the very important question of the optimum number of firms in an imperfectly competitive industry, which is so near the centre of modern discussion. Since (ex hypothesi) the different firms are producing products which are economicaly distinguishable, the question is one of those which falls under the heading of our third set of optimum conditions-the totl conditions; we have to ask whether a reduction in the number of products would be conducive to a movement towards the optimum. Suppose then that a particular firm is closed down. The loss involved im its cessation is measured by the compensati on which would have to be given to consumers to make up for their loss of the opportunity to consume the missing product, plus the compensation which would have to be given to producers to make up for the excess of their earnings in this use over what they could earn in other uses. The loss is therefore measured by Marshalls Surplus (Consumers Surplus 1 plus Producers Surplus). Under conditions of perfect competition, this loss is a net loss. For when the factors are transferred to other uses, they will have to be scattered about at the margins of those uses; and (since the earnings of a factor equal the value of its marginal product) the additional production made possible by the use of the factors in these new places is equal in value to the earnings of the factors (already accounted for). Under perfect competition, the marginal productivity law ensures that there is no producers surplus generated at the new margins; while, since the marginal unit of any commodity is worth no more than what is paid for it, there can be no consumers surplus either. Thus there is nothing to set against the initial loss; there cannot be a movement towards the optimum if the number of products is reduced. But if competition is imperfect, there is something to set on the other side. The earnings of a factor are now less than the value of its marginal product by an amount which varies with the degree of monopolistic exploitation; and therefore the increment to production which can be secured by using the factors at other margins is worth more than the earnings of the factors. There is a producers surplus, even at the margin, and this producers surplus may outweigh the initial loss. The general condition for a particular firm to be such that its existence is compatible with the optimum is that the sum of the consumers and producers surpluses generated by its activities must be greater than the producers surplus which would be generated by employing its factors (and exploiting them) elsewhere. The rule usually given is a special case of this general rule. If entry to the industry is free, price equals average cost, and the producers surplus generated by the firm as a whole can be neglected. If the products of the different firms are very cl ose substitutes, or merely distinguished by irrational pre- ferences, consumers surplus can perhaps be neglected as well. With these simplifications, the number of firms in an impe competitive industry is always excessive, so long as price is greater than marginal cost anywhere in the industry. (Or, if we can retain the identity of price with average cost, the number of firms is excessive until average cost is reduced to a minimum.) These, however, are simplifications; it is not always true that the number of firms in an imperfectly competitive industry is excessive, though very often it may be. Before recommending in practice a policy of shutting down redundant firms, we ought to be sure that the full condition is satisfied; and we ought to be very sure that the discarded factors will in fact be transferred to more productive uses. In a world where the most the economist can hope for is that he will be listened to occasionallY, that is not always so certain. In the absence of costs of movement the allocation of resources by competitive markets achieves universally equal marginal private net products. However, the production of ideal output requires equality of marginal social net products. Where private and social net products diverge, there is a prima facie case for reallocation of resources (Economics of welfare page 136) The Economics of Welfare Pigous major work, Wealth and Welfare (1912) and Economics of Welfare (1920), developed Alfred Marshalls concept of externalities (see Pigou, 1920), costs imposed or benefits conferred on others that are not taken into account by the person taking the action. Pigou attributed welfare gains to the greater marginal utility a dollar of income had for the poor compared to the rich; a transfer of income from rich to poor increased total utility that could also be defined as increased quality of life. Pigou also argued that welfare gains came from improving the quality of the work force through changes in the distribution of income or by improved working conditions. He argued that the existence of externalities was sufficient justification for government intervention. The reason was that if someone was creating a negative externality, such as pollution, he would engage in too much of the activity that generated the externality. Someone creating a positive externality, say, by educating himself and thus making himself more interesting to other people, would not invest enough in his education because he would not perceive the value to himself as being as great as the value to society. To discourage the activity that caused the negative externality, Pigou advocated a tax on the activity. To encourage the activity that created the positive externality, he advocated a subsidy. These are now called Pigovian (or Pigovian) taxes and subsidies. Let us now consider two excerpts that typify Pigous social policy, mentioned above: One person A, in the course of rendering some service, for which payments is made, to a second person B, incidentally also renders services or disservices to other personsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ of such sort that payment cannot be exacted from benefited parties or compensation enforced on behalf of the injured parties (Pigou 1932). It is possible for the State to remove the divergence [between private and social net product] through bounties and taxes (Pigou 1932). In the Economics of Welfare, Pigou says that his aim is to ascertain how far the free play of self-interest, acting under the existing legal system, tends to distribute the countrys resources in the way most favorable to the production of a large national dividend, and how far it is feasible for State action to improve upon natural tendencies. He starts by referring to optimistic followers of the classical economists who have argued that the value of production would be maximized if the government refrained from any interference in the economic system and the economic arrangements were those which came about naturally (Pigou 1932). Pigou goes on to say that if self-interest does promote economic welfare, it is because human institutions have been devised to make it so. He concludes: But even in the most advanced States there are failures and imperfections there are many obstacles that prevent a communitys resources from being distributed in the most efficient way. The study of these constitutes our present problem its purpose is essentially practical. It seeks to bring into clearer light some of the ways in which it now is, or eventually may become, feasible for governments to control the play of economic forces in such wise as to promote the economic welfare, and through that, the total welfare, of their citizens as a whole (Pigou 1932). Pigous thoughts are further elucidated: Some have argued that no State action is needed. But the system has performed as well as it has because of State action: Nonetheless, there are still imperfections. it might happen that costs are thrown upon people not directly concerned, through, say, uncompensated damage done to surrounding woods by sparks from railway engines. All such effects must be included-some of them will be positive, others negative elements-in reckoning up the social net product of the marginal increment of any volume of resources turned into any use or place (Pigou 1932) To illustrate this discussion further, let us consider an example: Suppose a paper mill was being planned on a certain river and an economist was given all facts about the river-in-question and told that a paper mill was to be sited so that it could discharge oxygen-consuming waste into the river. Suppose further that the economist was asked to analyze the situation, offer a policy for siting the mill, and comment on the practical aspects of adopting the policy proposal as a general rule. The first approach involves an externality analysis, where the paper mill pollutes the river, imposing an unwanted cost on society, a cost that does not enter the mill owners profit calculations. This is the problem of social cost. Following this line of inquiry, failure to consider the external cost leads to too much paper and too little environmental quality. This economist would be using an analytical framework developed by A. C. Pigou who would argue that pollution generates a social cost that should be dealt with by the central government. He would propose a system of taxes, bounties, and regulations for resolving the problem. Most likely, the economist using this framework would call for some form of effluent taxes or regulation to control the mills discharge. Pigous solution spoke of market failure and the need for a central authority to fine-tune markets so that the appropriate level of pollution would emerge. This approach called for collection of complicated and rapidly changing information, translating the information into a tax or regulation, and imposing the tax or rule on the polluter. In fact, modern environmental economics began with the work of Arthur Pigou, who developed the analysis of externalities. His name is attached to the traditional policy proposal, Pigouvian taxes on polluting activities, equal to the value of the damages. Coases alternative solution Pigous approach came under attack from Lionel Robbins and Frank Knight. The New Welfare Economics that arose in the late 1930s dispensed with much of Pigous analytical toolbox. Later, the Public Choice theorists rejected Pigous approach for its naive benevolent despot assumption. Finally, Nobel Laureate Ronald Coase demonstrated that efficient outcomes could be generated without government intervention when property rights are clearly defined. Coase presents his case in the article The Problem of Social Cost (1960). To explain this alternative let us continue with the paper mill example. There is a second approach likely taken. In this line of thinking the economist considers the paper mill and others who wish to consume or enjoy water quality as part of a competitive market where people bargain for the use of rights to scarce property. This analysis has nothing to do with polluters imposing cost on society, but everything to do with competing demands for use of an asset. If rights to the asset are defined and assigned to members of the river-basin community, then those planning to build the paper mill must bargain with the rightholders to determine just how much, if any, waste will discharge into the river. If the rights are held by the mill, then the existing communities along the river must bargain with the mill owner for rights to water quality. Again, bargaining determines the amount of discharge to the river. This approach relies on the work of Ronald Coase (1960). Using this framework, an economist might recommend a meeting of the mill owners and others who have access to the river. After organizing the parties, negotiations would ensue. If existing river users owned water-quality rights, the mill would have to buy the rights in order to discharge specified amounts of waste. If the mill had the right to pollute, existing river users would have to buy water quality from the mill, paying the mill to limit its discharges. In other words, Pigouvian taxes do embody the important principle that polluters should pay for the damages they inflict on society. But in both law and economics, a more conservative analysis has gained popularity. Legal scholar Ronald Coase argued that taxes and regulation might be unnecessary, since under some circumstances polluters and those harmed by pollution could engage in private negotiation to determine the appropriate compensation. While Pigous examples of externalities often involved simultaneous harms to large numbers of people, Coases examples tended to be localized, individual nuisances, where one persons behavior disturbed the immediate neighbors. The image of environmental externalities as localized nuisances serves to trivialize the real problems of widespread, collective threats to health and nature. Creative alternative readings of Coase have been suggested at times, but the dominant interpretation of his work has provided an intellectual basis for the retreat fr om regulation. Comparison of Pigous and Coases approaches Evidence of the record of Coases intellectual influence is seen in the count of citations to his 1960 article, which are shown in Yardley (1977). The citation data of Coases (1960) The Problem of Social Cost and Pigous (1932) The Economics of Welfare are superimposed on a count of Federal Register pages for the same years. The data mapping suggests several things. First, Pigous influence on academics seems to operate at a steady state. There is no evidence that Pigovians were responding to the growth of regulation occurring around them. The Coase citations indicate the reverse. References to his ideas seem to be a reaction to th